CREATIVE STRATEGY: A MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVECreative strategy is a policy or guidingprinciple which specifies the general nature andcharacter of messages to be designed. Strategystates the means selected to achieve the desiredaudience effect over the term of the campaign.It is important to emphasize that creative strategy isnot concerned with message elements or creativeexecution. It is most often the job of agency creativepeople to formulate and execute advertisements.The emphasis here is on strategy because, at theman^erial level, it is necessary and important toenvision and evaluate message policy. Doing thisrequires knowledge of both the consumer and thecompetition. These twin concerns and the relativeimportance of each will be discussed in more detailin the context of each strategic alternative.CREATIVE STRATEGY AND MARKETINGCONDITIONSFor many large, successful consumer goodsmarketers, the selection of the advertising creativestrategy is perhaps their most important marketingdecision. For many of these products, distributionis not an important competitive factor, productsthemselves are similar enough to be used inter-changeably and price changes are quickly met bycompetitors.This leaves promotion as the most readily manipu-lated marketing element. While the promotion mix,of course, consists of numerous elements in additionto advertising, among the heavy advertisers who areof concern here, it is the advertising creative strategywhich sets the tone that other promotional elementsfollow. Such elements as sales promotion are usedto support and reinforce the advertising creativestrategy.For all of these reasons, advertising becomes theprimary controllable element in the marketing mixand, thus, the selection of strategy is a crucialdecision which deserves careful consideration bymanagement. However, there is little theory as towhat constitutes the range of creative strategy alter-natives or how these might suit any particularmarketing setting.It is obvious that any advertising strategy mustbe suited to the marketing conditions. The marketingliterature presents a number of constructs for con-sideration in marketing planning, yet few whichreally seem useful in evaluating appropriate condi-tions for selection of creative strategy. For example,the literature suggests the examination of stage of the36Charles F. FrazerCharles Frazer is an Associate Professor at the University ofColorado-Boulder. He holds a Ph.D. from the Univemity ofIllinois in addition to industry experience with Eastman Kodakand Young & Rubicam. Reports of his work on advertisingrelated subjecu have appeared in advertising, communicationsand sociological journals.ABSTRACTThis paper suggests that the literature of advertisingmanagement and decision making has given little attention tothe selection of creative strategy, and that the identification ofspecific strategic alternatives would make both the choicesavailable and their implications clearer for planning purposes.The paper outlines seven distinct strategic options defining thecharacteristics of each. Competitive implications of the stra-tegic alternatives and the conditions of usage are discussed.Most of the literature and many of the textbooksin advertising management focus on the decisionsnecessary to develop and execute an effective adver-tising/communications plan. While this decision-making orientation is quite helpfuJ in many areas ofadvertising management, the decision sequence andalternatives in formulating advertising creativestrategy have not been clearly conceptualized.The purpose of this paper is to elaborate a mana-gerially-oriented concept of creative strategyselection. Beginning with a definition of creativestrategy, important considerations in strategy selec-tion will be examined and strategy alternativesidentified and described. The problem of findingagreement on a definition of advertising creativestrategy has been discussed in detail elsewhere (2),however, it is important to begin with a clear state-ment of what creative strategy is for purposes of thisdiscussion. Review of the literature suggests thefollowing:©JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1983product life cycle in advertising planning. While thisconsideration is certainly important, stopping at thispoint results in a rather limited and parochial view.The product life cycle concept, while quite usefulunder some circumstances, is limiting for most heavyadvertisers in that it concentrates attention on themanufacturer's product alone. For these marketers aconcept which looks more broadly at the state ofdevelopment of the market is more useful. Thisrequires analysis of:1. History and development of the market2. Primary competitors and their promotionalstrategies3. Major consumer groups and their productperceptionsCareful examination of these basic elements is rudi-mentary to modern consumer goods marketing. Whilenumerous other elements can and should beexamined as well, these form the basis for considera-tion of advertising creative strategy altematives.From the following presentation of strategy alter-natives it will be seen that 1) strategic altemativescan be identified and differentiated; 2) altemativesare best suited to particular market conditions; 3)some strategies, given effective tactical execution,have profound effects on competitors while theeffects of others are relatively slight. It will also beseen that decisions at the strategic level, while ulti-mately affecting consumer perception and compe-titive impact, still leave considerable latitude fortactical execution.CREATIVE STRATEGY ALTERNATIVESThe strategy altematives discussed here arearranged in order of historical development in theconsumer goods field and proceed to a higher orderof sophistication in the evolutionary sense. But moresophisticated does not necessarily mean \"better.\" Asillustrated in the examples below, each strategy alter-native has evolved to suit a particular set of conditionsfaced by a marketer. These conditions, rather thana ranking of alleged efficacy, dictate the selection ofstrategy.There will probably be few surprises in the list ofstrategic altematives presented below. They arederived from the advertising literature and tradepress, from conversations with advertising people, andanalysis of commercials. Many of the labels used werefirst suggested by advertising leaders whom readershave encountered often in the past. In each case thedefining characteristics of the strategic altemative areoffered along with an example of the strategy, theconditions under which usage seems most appro-priate, and the competitive implications.Generic StrategyThis advertising makes claims which could be madeby virtually all brands in the product category. Thereis no claim of brand superiority and no effort atdifferentiation of the advertised brand from competi-tors. The best examples are either historical or foundamong monopolistic firms. Perhaps the best currentexample is found in Bell Long Line's \"Reach out andtouch someone\" campaign. Though the Bell System iscurrently faced with some long distance competitionfrom such systems as Sprint and M.C.I., the compe-titive situation is unaddressed in the advertising. Thisstrategy is best suited to monopoly or extremedominance of a product category, such that theadvertiser can expect an extremely large share of anydemand stimulated as the result of advertising. Aspecial case of these conditions is the introductionof a profoundly new product. Under these circum-stances the advertiser enjoys (presumably onlytemporarily) a monopolistic market position and isconfronted with the task of stimulating or channel-izing generic demand. While such a campaign(especially if carried on long term) may serve to makethe brand name virtually synonymous with the pro-duct category, it leaves competitive marketingweapons such as product differentiation and marketsegmentation open to competitors, as well as allhigher order advertising strategies.Preemptive StrategyThis strategy, most effectively utilized by adver-tisers of functionally interchangeable goods andservices, extols a product or service attribute or userbenefit common to all in the class. It is preemptivein the sense of forcing competitors into what isconventionally considered the weak position of echo-ing \"me too\" in their advertising or of findinganother advertising altemative. The best recentexample was seen in the early Federal Express cam-paign. In this case, imaginative, emphatic advertisingpresented Federal Express as the service whichprovided next day delivery. Similarly, Diet Pepsi'snew wave style, \"Now you see it, now you don't\"campaign stresses the benefit of its diet soft drink asthough it were unique.As mentioned above, this strategy is most utilizedby homogeneous goods and service advertisers such asanalgesics and airlines. It also seems appropriate innew or underdeveloped product categories especiallywhere little physical product differentiation exists.The Federal Express example provides an interestinginstance of the implications of this strategy forcompetitors. United Airlines parcel delivery serviceresponded with a generic \"me too\" campaign inwhich Muppet-Uke packages talked about the fun offlying United and arriving the next day. The compe-titive impact of the preemptive claim is significantin that it forces competitors into the \"me too\"position, or into strategies based on physical orpsychological differentiation which may be difficultto achieve.Unique Selling Proposition StrategyRosser Reeves (5) was, of course, the first topublicize the unique selling proposition in 1960.The basic idea was that effective advertising must bebased on a meaningful, distinctive, consumer benefit.Though Reeves did not state it, he strongly impliedthat the USP is based on a unique physical productcharacteristic and/or benefit. The term USP will beused here to describe advertising strategy based onphysical differentiation.This was the strategy employed by a secondgeneration of Federal Express ads in which theadvertiser differentiated their service by guaranteeingdelivery by 10:30 a.m. the next day. Thus, a physi-cally demonstrable outcome is employed as the focusof the advertising. Another example from contem-porary national advertising is the current campaignfor Biz bleach. The ads stress the physical uniquenessof powdered bleach over conventional liquidsimplying unique efficacy.On the whole, the USP strategy seems best suitedto developed product categories of relatively hightechnological levels in which physical product differ-entiation offers a lasting competitive advantage. Inlow technology industries, this strategy seems lessadvisable since any physical difference in productscould be quickly matched by competitors. Advertis-ing in the breakfast cereal, fast food and soft drinkindustries seems to confirm this hypothesis in thatline and menu extensions have been quickly matched,and advertised, by competitors.As the examples above indicate, the competitiveimplications are fairly profound. To meet USPadvertising, competitors are forced either to makesignificant technological or marketing commitmentsby matching or bettering product innovations, byproliferating brands and segmenting the market or byopting for a totally different advertising strategy.The strategy may be based on any of the followingalternatives.Brand Image StrategyThe debt to David Ogilvy (4) here is obvious. Inemploying this strategy, the advertiser formulates aclaim of superiority or distinction based on factorsextrinsic to the product. Often products are asso-ciated with symbols, either socially extant or createdby or for the advertiser. In some ways this strategymay be seen as a counterpart to the USP in that there38is a similar effort to differentiate the product, but thedifferentiation is psychologically rather than physi-cally based. WhUe historical examples abound,particularly in Ogilvy's work, a clear contemporaryexample is seen in the Oil of Olay skin cream cam-paign. In the commercials, the world's beauties areseen to use the product and the image projected tothe consumer is that of a product of internationalstature and renown.This strategy is complementary to the USP in thesense that it is well-suited to relatively homogeneous,low technology goods with little physical differentia-tion. Cigarettes, liquor and clothing provideexamples. The competitive implications of the brandimage strategy are not as great as those of otherstrategic alternatives. Since claims of high status orprestige associated with use of the product are nottied to physical product characteristics, they may bequickly challenged or matched by competitors. Acompetitor's claim of prestige does not directlychallenge the claim of another advertiser and thus,Chivas Regal and Johnny Walker Black Label Scotchwhiskey can coexist as prestige goods based on brandimage advertising strategies.Positioning StrategyThe positioning strategy is, of course, the concep-tion of Ries and Trout (6). According to the authors,positioning strategy requires giving the product aplace in the consumer's mind relative to competition.Note that the relationship to competition is an impor-tant defining characteristic. Without this the strategybecomes a USP (if based on physical attributes) orbrand image (if based on psychological differentia-tion). The element \"consumer's mind\" is noteworthyas well. This strategy is particularly well-suited to newentries in a product category or to brands with rela-tively small market shares which wish to challengemarket leaders. Use of this strategy entails a commit-ment to consumer research both to understand theconsumer's perceptions of competitive brands and tounderstand the ways in which these brands arearrayed. For these reasons, the strategy is best suitedto highly developed markets and product categorieswhere relatively sophisticated marketing-orientedfirms compete. Utilizing the positioning strategyinvolves a commitment to product proliferation ifthe advertiser chooses to offer a range of products tocover the category and fit with the multiple productniches among numerous consumer groups. Examplesof this are seen in the toothpaste and soap categories.Perhaps the most widely seen contemporary exampleis provided by George Plimpton's presentations forIntellivision. The coniparison with Atari and the clearpositioning of Intellivision as the more fun and morerealistic video game altemative demonstrate the vitalelements of this strategy.The competitive implications of the positioningstrategy are strong. Since by definition the advertiserusing positioning names, or at least strongly implies,the identity of a leading competitor, the competitivefirm is left with a strictly limited number of options.One of these is to chaDenge the basis of the competi-tor's claim either in advertising, as was done by CocaCola versus Pepsi, or in court, as was done byMcDonald's in response to Burger King. As can beseen from both these examples, the outcome is diffi-cult to anticipate. The named advertisers run the riskof appearing petty and defensive both in the adver-tising and in news reports of their actions. Thus, thepositioning strategy is a powerful weapon in that itlimits the response options of the named competitor.The strategy is not without risk for the advertiseremploying it as well, as the controversy on MadisonAvenue over all types of comparison advertisingindicates (1).Resonance StrategyThe 197O's and '8O's have seen the evolution of astrategy not discussed above. It is based on the reso-nance principle first presented by Tony Schwartz(7:25) as follows:. .. (the communicator) must deeply under-stand the kinds of information and experiencesstored in his audience, the patterning of thisinformation, and the interactive resonanceprocess whereby stimuli evoke this stored infor-mation.Advertising based on this principle does not focus onproduct claims or brand images. Rather, it seeks topresent circumstances, situations or emotions whichfind counterparts in the real or imagined experiencesof specific groups of consumers. The intendedaudience impact of advertisements based on thisstrategy is the matching of \"pattems\" in the commer-cial or ad with the stored experience of the prospect.If a successful match is achieved between commercialand viewer, then, according to Schwartz, it gives newrelevance to the product in the purchase situation.This strategy is a logical outgrowth of psychographicand lifestyle analysis in that the ability to evoke ormatch patterned experience presupposes an under-standing of the types of patteming and experiencewhich exist among consumer groups.An example of advertising based on this strategy isthe current Miller Beer campaign, \"Welcome to Millertime.\" Product claims or brand images are not themessage here; instead it's the experience of relaxationand reward found in a few beers among friends after ahard day's work. The audience is invited to feelresonance with this situation and, next time, to orderMiller, the appropriate beer for those circumstances.This strategy is not totally new or unique. The basicprinciple was evident in the Pepsi generation themeof the 196O's. This strategy is well-suited to compe-titive situations in which little product differenceexists, no product information is necessary, and, thus,where the experience of the consumer rather than theattributes of the product becomes the main focus forthe sale.An important consideration in the decision toemploy the resonance strategy is the commitment toconsumer research it involves. As noted above, thisaltemative requires a relatively deep understanding ofthe consumer both individually and in aggregate tounderstand the \"pattems\" of consumer experience,to evoke this experience and to design messageswhich resonate with it.The competitive implications of this altemativevary greatly depending upon the nature of the con-sumer groups and the number of market segmentsinvolved. Miller's campaign seems to adopt thestrategy of resonance with the working man. Optionsleft to competitors seem to include the \"me too\"approach, or a resonance strategy aimed at somedifferent group, for instance white-collar workers orCEO's, or some lower order strategic altemative.Anomalous/Affective StrategyA number of seemingly very dissimilar contem-porary campaigns illustrate the final strategicaltemative. A widely seen example is the Christmasseason 1982-83 Chanel #5 television commercialwhich almost defies description. Structurally, it is aseries of jump cuts which end with a product shot.The single copy line is \"Share the fantasy.\" The newwave visual style is the same as the 1981-82 Chanelad which ran during the previous season and used asimilar copy line.A similar situation exists with the televison cam-paign for Levis' shrink-to-fit jeans for women. Twocurrent TV ads feature a woman in jeans and refer-ences to an unseen character named Travis. Thestrategy in both cases is based on attention andinvolvement resulting from the ambiguity of thecommercials. A further example is seen in theregional advertising for Rainier Beer of Seattle. Thecampaign for Rainier is based on clever dramas andincidents, all unrelated. The presentation is invariablyhumorous and says nothing about the productbeyond the fact that it is \"mountain fresh.\" Theintent of the strategy is to make contact with theconsumer on an emotional level. An emotional reac-tion, any emotional reaction, breaks through theindifference and ennui to change the perception of39the product. While a positive reaction to the ad andproduct are hoped for, an emotional response is whatis sought (3).Competitive implications are unclear. The basis ofthe anomalous/affective strategy is difference.Successful use of it virtually demands that competi-tors are playing it straight in their advertising.SUMMARY DISCUSSIONThe creative strategy alternatives described aboveshould provide a useful tool to several groups con-cerned with advertising. For management it allowsdiscussion of advertising alternatives at a conceptuallevel. This allows consideration of the outcomeTABLE 1Summary of Creative Strategy AlternativesAlternativeGenericstraight product or benefitclaim with no assertion ofsuperiorityPreemptivegeneric claim withassertion of superiorityMost Suitable Conditionsmonopoly or extreme dominanceof product categoi>'Competitive ImplicationsExamplesserves to make advertiser's brand Bellsynonymous with product category; \"Reach out'may be combated through higherorder strategiesmay be successful in convincingconsumer of superiority ofadvertiser's product; limitedresponse options for competitorsDiet Pepsi\"Now vou see it'most useful in gro\\^ing or awakeningmarket where competitive advertisingis generic or non-existentUnique Selling Propositionsuperiority claims based onunique physical Teature orbenentBrand Imageclaims based on psychologicaldifferentiation, usuallysymbolic associationmost useful when point ofdifference cannot be readilymatched by competitorsadvertiser obtains strong persuasive Federal Expressadvantage; may force competitors \"delivered byto imitate or choose more aggressive 10:30 a.m.\"strategy (e.g., \"positioning\")most often involves prestige claims Oil of Olaywhich rarely challenge competitors \"beautifuldirectiv women\"best suited to homogeneous goodswhere physical differences aredifficult to develop or may be quicklymatched; requires sufficientunderstanding of consumers todevelop meaningful symbols/associationsbest strategy for attacking a marketleader, requires relatively long termcommitment to aggressive advertisingefforts and understanding consumersbest suited to socially visible goods;requires considerable consumerunderstanding to design messagepatternsPositioningattempts to build or occupymental niche in relation toidentified competitorResonanceattempts to evoke storedexperiences of prospects toendow product with relevantmeaning or significanceAffectiveattempts to provoke involvementor emotion through ambiguity,humor or the like, withoutstrong selling emphasisdirect comparison severely limitsoptions for named competitor;counterattacks seem to offerlittle chance of successfew direct linfiitations oncompetitor's options; most likelycompetitive response Is imitationIntellivision\"more fun\"Miller Beer\"Welcome toMiller time\"best suited to discretionary items;competitors may imitate toeffective use depends uponundermine strategy of differenceconventional approach by competitorsor pursue other alternativesto maximize difference; greatestcommitment is to aesthetics orintuition rather than researchLevis for Women\"Travis\"40sought at a general level without needlessly handi-capping those involved in the execution phase ofdevelopment. As suggested in the summary dia^am,management may also consider the alternativesavailable to competitors under each strategyaltemative.For scholars and other researchers, this toolsu^ests a different sort of taxonomy than haspreviously been available. Much general advertisingresearch has compared advertising campaigns basedon executional similarity. As is obvious from thediscussion above, widely different consumer effectscould be anticipated from ads based on genericstrategies as opposed to those based upon positioningstrategies. Yet, in contemporary research, these twovastly different strategies might be lumped togetherbased on the fact of humorous execution. In thisway, the range of strategy alternatives allowsresearchers to see more deeply into the intention ofthe advertiser, rather than merely make superficialcomparisons based on surface similarities.There is no doubt that alternatives are evolving.Careful analysis by other researchers should yield newstrategic options adapted to changing market condi-tions. These steps should help to illuminate the\"black box\" of the creative aspect of advertisingwithout any intent to tie the hands of advertisingcreative people. Indeed, as more is understood aboutthe ways in which creative strategy may be employed,the energies of creative people can be more produc-tively focused on the development of effectivecampaigns.REFERENCES1. Boddewyn, J. and Katherin Marton. Comparison Adver-tising. New York: Hastings House, 1978.2. Frazer, Charles. \"Toward a DefinitionotCreativeStrategy,\"paper presented at American Academy of Advertising AnnualConference, April 1983.3. Heckler, Terry. Heckler Associates, Seattle, Washington.Heckler Associates creates the television commercials forRainier. Observations are based on personal communicationswith the author.4. Ogilvy, David. Confessions of an Advertising Man. NewYork: Ballantine, 1963. Particularly Chapter 5, pp. 78 91.5. Reeves, Rosser. Reality in Advertising, New York: AlfredKnopf, 1961. Especially Chapter 13, pp. 46-69.6. Ries, Al and Jack Trout. Positioning: The Battle for YourMind. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981.7. Schwartz, Tony. The Responsive Chord, Garden City.NY: Anchor Books, 1973.(continued from p. 26)16. Ogilvy, David and Joel Raphaelson. \"Research on Adver-tising Techniques that Work — and Don't Work,\" HarvardBusiness Review, July-August 1982, pp. 1-1-16.17. Ryan, T.A. and Carol B. Schwartz. \"Speed of Perceptionas a Function of Mode of Representation,\" American Journalof Psychology, 69 (1956), pp. 60-69.18. Vestal, D.A. The Relative Effectiveness in the Teaching ofHigh School Physics of Two Photographic Techniques Utilizedby the Sound Motion Picture. Abstract of Doctoral Disserta-tions, University of Nebraska, 13. Lincoln: University ofNebraska, 1952.19. Wright, J.S.. D.S. Wamer, W.L. Winter, and S.K. Zeigler.Advertising. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1982.20. White. Hooper. \"How to Liven TV SpoU: Animate,\"Advertising Age, March 9, 1981, p. 50.41
